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The Ogiek: The Guardians of the
Forest
By Ron Nomi
Seattle Preparatory High School
African Studies
December 13, 2004
Abstract
Natural resources play an important role in the shaping of a
culture or the survival of a society. The
relationship between man and his dependency on the environment has
been a major cause of conflicts throughout the history of the
world. The Mau Forest, an ecological haven in Kenya, is an example
of such conflict. The Mau supports an abundance of diverse plant
and animal life as well as one of the last indigenous forest
dwellers, the Ogiek. The Ogiek, commonly referred to as the
“caretakers” (Sang, 2002, p.3) of the forest, have existed for
centuries in a peaceful (Obare & Wangwe, 1998) and symbiotic
relationship with their homeland. This union instills a feeling of
a true religion for these people. The Ogiek is a forest-dependent
community who have resisted, struggled and survived decades of
discrimination and eviction from their ancestral land (Astill,
2002). Since colonization the Mau Forest has
undergone environmental chaos of all living plants and animals
(“Kenya,” 2001). This loss of natural resources and the denial
of spiritual and cultural rights of their homeland have had a
devastating affect on the continuance of the Ogiek identity. A
loss of identity is a loss of life. The Ogiek individuality,
spirituality, and economic survival are based upon the
biodiversity and ecosystem of the Mau Forest. Although the Ogiek
have maintained their heritage for centuries through a symbiotic
relationship with the Mau Forest, they now face cultural
extinction due to government policies that are destroying their
traditional homeland and denying their right to exist.
The Mau Forest
The Mau Forest, located on the cliffs of the Rift Valley in Kenya,
covers approximately three hundred fifty thousand hectares (Sang,
2002). It is a mountainous rain forest with an average rainfall of
two thousand millimeters that is bordered by four Districts:
Kericho, Narok, Nakuru and Bomet (Sang, 2002). The
Mau is a delicately balanced and complex ecosystem that plays an
important role in nature, capturing and absorbing water during the
rainy season, and releasing water into streams and rivers during
the dry season (“Facts,” 2003). Famous as one of five water
sheds (“Protect,” n.d.) it provides forty percent of the water
to Kenya (Astill, 2002).
The natural resources of the Mau are essential to the lives of the
Ogiek. Water, necessary for all life, is placed under the strict
guidance of the Elders. The Elders prohibit land cultivation
within fifty meters of running water (Obawra & Wangwe, 1998)
protecting its purity and the continued use by all life in the
forest. The ecosystem and the biodiversity supported by the Mau
exemplify the fine balance that must be maintained in this
ecological haven. Any alteration will affect the stability of the
forest, causing detrimental effects on all of its inhabitants,
which the Ogiek is a part. The loss of the Mau Forest and its
biodiversity is the loss of the Ogiek heritage. The
disappearance and extinction of a culture and heritage is a
permanent loss to mankind that cannot be replaced.
History of Ogiek
The ancient Africans are revered and praised as frontiersmen who
coexisted with nature (Beinhart, 2000). To them the word land is
not defined in a one-word idea (Beinhart, 2000), such as ecosystem
or environment. Instead, nature and the
environment are described symbolically (Beinhart, 2000) using
human and/or animal spirits. Land is often identified as dangerous,
sacred or powerful through the use of myths and fables.
These stories discuss the relationship between man and his
environment or question social issues of society that often lead
to a moral or an open-ended tale. To the
ancient Africans, their natural environment and all its resources
play an important role in shaping their society (Beinhart, 2000).
The Ogiek are a long established African tribe of hunters and
gatherers assumed to be the first settlers of Eastern Africa
(Sang, 2002). Their existence can be traced as
far back as 1000 A.D. (Towett, 2004b). The
forest provides a way of life, a source of ceremonial and sacred
locations such as graves sites (Towett, 2004b), and a place that
inspires spiritualism and emotional well-being (Kirui & Mbugua,
2004). The spiritual life that the Mau offers cultivates sincerity
and moral commitment to the environment and to all of its
inhabitants. It is here that the Ogiek draws
their inner strength and the purity of consciousness. According to
ancient stories, God made the Ogiek of the East Mau Forest from
soil gathered at the cliffs of the Mau Complex (Majtenyi, 2001).
The Ogiek heritage can be thought of as being built on a bond to
the soil of their homeland, instilling a belief that where they
exist is where they belong. As such, the Mau Forest is the
foundation of their community, tradition, and culture affecting
the every day life of the people. Therefore,
without the Mau the Ogiek will fade away into oblivion.
The Ogiek’s sense of sight, smell, and sound has become highly
developed through centuries of living in the forest (Sang, 2002).
This adaptation has made the them proficient at tracking, mapping,
and quick to identify a variety of flora and vegetation (Sang,
2002). This knowledge and skill makes them efficient at hunting
small animals, the gathering of honey, nuts, fruit, wild plants,
and herbs for food or medicinal use (Sang, 2002). The Ogiek
familiarity and awareness of the sensitive balance between
themselves and nature makes for a peaceful and happy co-existence
with the wildlife of the forest. They hunt and gather as long as
it is supplied in bountiful amounts. Their dedication to
maintaining the harmony and balance of their homeland yields
unconditional sacrifices within the community for the protection
and safety of their environment. If the scale of supply and demand
is tipped, adjustments will be made within the community until the
balance can be restored. The Ogiek use their indigenous skills to
support them. They use the skins from hunted animals, herbs and
honey gathered from the plants and bees, and commodities made from
iron ore, such as knives and spearheads, to trade with other
tribes (Towett, 2004b). The philosophy of their
economic system is based on providing for the good of the
individual and the community, while simultaneously maintaining the
health of the environment (Towett, 2004b). The Ogiek are
responsible for themselves and the livelihood of the world they
live in. By living within the laws of nature, the tribe is obeying
the laws of life and therefore, they are successful in bringing
prosperity, peace, and happiness to themselves and the earth. It
is this instilled value that has made them “self sufficient”
(Towett, 2004b, p.100) through the centuries without the need of
any outside intervention or assistance. The social and economic
livelihood of the Ogiek is dependent on the natural resources of
the forest, forming a partnership, which is based on mutual
respect.
Council of Elders
The Ogiek is the oldest and most knowledgeable environmentalist (Majtenyi,
2001). Methods to preserve and conserve the forest are passed down
from generation to generation by the Elders of the community (Obare
& Wagnwe, 1998). Their guidance affirms the moral
responsibility of each member of the community to the physical and
spiritual laws of nature. The Council of Elders
distributes land, solves disputes, and governs the Ogiek people.
Property is held communally through a system of tenure to which
animals and plants are a part of the land (Obare & Wagnwe,
1998). The Elders are responsible for the
distribution of property to clans or family members (Sang, 2002).
Land boundaries are demarcated and identified through the use of
swamps, glades, valleys, rivers, streams and sacred trees (Towett,
2002), exemplifying the spirituality and sacredness that land and
its inhabitants play in the life of the Ogiek. As a sign of
respect and identification, each family names their portion of
land, acknowledging their responsibility to the occupancy and
usage of the property (Obare & Wagnwe, 1998). According to
Ogiek law, each family is accountable for all animals and plants
living on their allocated area, to which hunting, gathering, and
tree felling must first have the approval of the Elders (Obare
& Wangwe, 1998). The Ogiek heritage is built on a sense of
responsibility to their homeland, themselves, and their community.
Their legacy is built on the philosophy where the needs of
the individual become the needs of the many. Therefore,
the Ogiek spirituality is based upon not only the respect of their
environment, but also upon each other as a group of people. The
Mau not only provides for the basic needs of the Ogiek, such as
shelter, food and clothing, but it also is an important aspect of
their social and spiritual life.
Protectors of the Forest
The Ogiek world is the Mau Forest, which holds many treasures
close to their hearts, minds, and souls. Through the centuries,
the Ogiek have practiced methods to conserve and preserve the
Mau’s natural resources. In doing so, they have become the
protectors of the forest. Honey is collected
year-round in beehives shaped in the form of hollow logs made from
the barks of trees (Obare & Wangwe, 1998). The stripping of
bark requires expertise and knowledge so no harm or damage is done
to the trees. The special care and attention placed on bees,
beehive manufacturing, and honey collection is supervised by the
Elders who controls the quantity and quality of beehives thus
guarding against the overuse of trees. The Ogiek familiarity of
the flowering season and pollination practices of the bees is the
result of centuries of forest life (Sang, 2002). This
has led to a symbiotic relationship between the forest and the
Ogiek. The process of honey collection aids in the cross
pollination of trees and plants within the forest and in return
provides food, wine and a means of trade with other tribes (Sang,
2002). Wine is used in ceremony rituals of the Ogiek, such as the
naming of a child. Honey wine is served to
guests in this spiritual and sacred ceremony (Kirui & Mbugua,
2004). The care and attention the Ogiek place
on honey collection has given them notoriety as honey gathers
(Sang 2002). Honey is a vital component in the Ogiek life. It
provides food for the community, an item of economic trade with
other tribes, and is part of sacred ceremonies that is crucial to
the spirituality of the Ogiek. The dependency on natural resources
and the relationship between the Ogiek and all life within the
forest motivates the Ogiek to use their indigenous skills and
wisdom to protect their environment. The Mau, while providing the
fundamental necessities of life, more importantly supports the
emotional well-being and enhances the spiritual rituals of the
Ogiek tradition that is crucial to the survival of their heritage.
The Effect of Colonization
Beinhart (2002), in his paper African History and Environmental
History, discusses the destructiveness of human society.
He states that the European expansion into Africa brought
forth the idea of humanizing the indigenous people and nature.
Colonization tried to change the African way of land use and in
doing so caused social and environmental ruin. Africans were
considered abusive to their environment and attempts were made to
control, segregate, and exclude tribal people from the forest
areas. Furthermore, environmental regulations
were introduced for the protection of natural resources.
As Beinhart later reveals, this was all a deception used by
the colonists to remove occupants from the forest in order to
extract timber and other desired natural resources to pad the
pockets of the rich and powerful.
Discrimination of the Ogiek
Since the time of British colonization, the Ogieks have been
fighting for the right to be recognized as individuals who have
cultural and the ancestral entitlements to their homeland.
In 1932 the Kenyan Land Commission implemented The Forest
Act, to which the Ogiek tenured land was declared a forest and
therefore a protected natural resource (Towett, 2002).
Declared unworthy, harmful, and detrimental the Ogiek were
evicted from the Mau Forest (“Kenya,” 2001). The
British government hoped they would be assimilated into other
tribes ridding them of the Ogiek (Astill, 2002). But eviction did
not deter the forest dwellers from their homeland; they kept
returning only to be treated as trespassers and squatters, and to
have their homes destroyed and their beehives torched (Astill,
2002). In 1963 Kenya became independent of
British rule (“Kenya,” 2001), but this did not change the fate
of the Ogiek. The Kenyan government, using the Forest Act, refused
to allow the Ogiek into their ancestral home (Towett, 2002).
Referred to as “Dorobos” (Sang, 2002, p. 3) or paupers, the
forest dwellers now faced discrimination by their own people. The
Ogiek land dispute, eviction, and social discrimination continued
in the new Independence, forcing the Ogiek to move deeper into the
forest (Obare & Wangwe, 1998). A small
group of Ogiek was eventually gathered and placed temporarily
around the forest station with the promise of resettlement, but
this never happened leaving them landless (Obare & Wangwe,
1998). Their land was allocated to individuals
that were not members of the Ogiek community, but were political
supporters of the present government (Towett, 2002). Judged
to be detrimental not only to the Mau but to the outside
community, the Ogiek were collected like cattle. As their land was
continually taken and under siege, their communities became split
and in disarray, leaving the Ogiek lost, confused, and constantly
persecuted. This peaceful community of forest dwellers, whose only
desire is to be allowed to live their lives as they have for
centuries, became victims at the hands of their own countrymen.
The constant eviction from the Mau has led a small number of Ogiek
to push deeper into the woods, while the majority have been forced
into an unfamiliar world. As such, they have become susceptible to
assimilation, disease, and poverty as they struggle to adapt to a
new way of life leaving their heritage in danger of becoming
extinct.
The Desecration of the Mau
Discrimination, corruption, greed, and power are the
underlying causes of the desecration of thousands of acres in the
Mau. In man’s desire for a better way of life, selfish
compromises are made at expense of others. The
Mau, labeled to have environmental protection, continued to be
cleared for timber, plantation, and settlement. Three logging
companies, Pan African Paper Mills, Raiply Timber, and Timsales,
Ltd, were exempt from The Forest Act (“Kenya,”
2002). All three logging companies have ties
with the Kenyan government. Raiply Timber and Timsales, Ltd employ
over thirty thousand Kenyans and Pan African Paper Mills is a
company in which the Kenyan government is a shareholder (Astill,
2002). Timber is felled for exportation and land is cleared for
plantation and settlement. In 1930 ten percent of forestland was
used for exotic tree plantation, again forcing the Ogiek deeper
into the forest (Obare & Wangwe, 1998). Timber and tea
plantation was seen as a means by which Kenya could compete on a
global scale in the world market as well as provide employment
within the country (Obare & Wagnwe, 1998). By the order of the
President and Parliament, in 1986, tea and pyrethrum plantations
were established (Obare & Wangwe, 1998) in Kenya. Pyrethrum or
painted daisy produces a natural pesticide in its brightly colored
flowers proved to have detrimental effects on the bee population (Obare
& Wangwe, 1998). At the same time, large portions of land were
given to outside settlers who were considered to be the
politically correct, and to individuals who were active supporters
of the current government. All parties had no
knowledge of land conservation or preservation and caused
unnecessary damage to the forest and its natural resources (Sang,
2002). Poor land management of plantations, logging, and
settlements resulted in the destruction of the forestland.
The desecration of the all plant and animal life in the Mau
from developers and settlers started a chain of natural disasters
in the forest, which negatively affected the Ogiek way of life.
The loss of tree and plant life changed the microclimate of
the forest (“Forest,”2004), as water that was once trapped is
now evaporated. The elimination of trees and
plants left the land barren and exposed, leaving the soil prone to
erosion. Erosion eventually affected the quality and quantity of
water in rivers and streams. Pesticide
introduction and use on plantations caused a decline in bee and
honey production. These combined changes have had a dramatic
effect on the ecosystem and biodiversity of the Mau. Changes
in the forest affect the Ogiek ability to support themselves.
Violation of the land and its inhabitants is considered
sacrilegious, affecting the Ogiek spirituality, their sense of
well-being, and their way of life. When the
land becomes exhausted and useless, and there are no more parcels
left to take, the Ogiek moves closer to the eradication of their
heritage. Soon the Ogiek, like their land, will
become extinct.
Violations Against International Laws
Kenya takes pride in being a globally conscientious partner,
supporting many international conventions and treaties regarding
the environment and the rights of indigenous communities (Trouwborst,
2002). The Kenyan government in denying the recognition of the
indigenous Ogiek and the desecration of the Mau Forest is in
direct violation of international environmental and human rights
laws it adopted (Towett, 2002). In 1972 Kenya
agreed to a multilateral World Heritage Convention, which approved
a treaty concerned with the protection and survival of cultural
and natural heritages. In being an active member of this
agreement, Kenya pledged to safeguard and protect heritages from
any social or economic changes that cause damage or destruction of
a heritage (Trouwborst, 2002). Again, in 1982 pledging to abide by
The World Charter for Nature, the Kenyan government promised to
respect nature and all its processes, avoid irreversible damage,
and adapt agriculture and forest practices that are natural to the
environment (Trouwborst, 2002). Lastly, in 1992 accepting the
Convention on Biological Diversity, Kenya vowed to protect the
ecosystem and natural habitats, respect indigenous communities,
and use nature in such a way that does not cause harm to the
biodiversity, or present and future generations (Trouwborst,
2002). In these three treaties alone, the government of Kenya has
disregarded the socioeconomic dependency of the Ogiek on the Mau
Forest, dismissed the cultural and spiritual importance of the Mau
to the continuance of the Ogiek heritage and lastly disrespected
the Mau Forest as an integral part of the Ogiek society.
The Assimilation of the Ogiek
The Ogiek is highly adapted to their life in the Mau. Life outside
the forest is unfamiliar, frightening and possesses many threats
to the innocent and naïve Ogiek people. As forest dwellers, they
lack the social skills necessary to survive successfully in the
modern world. They have become susceptible to the influences of
money, modern conveniences, diseases, and illnesses of their new
environment. Tuberculosis, malaria, and
sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea, AIDS, and HIV are
a few examples of infirmity that present a deadly threat to their
existence. The Ogiek of the Mau Forest once a self-sustaining,
spiritual, and proud people now find their heritage and their
cultural spirit dissolving at the hands of man.
The assimilation of the Ogiek people into the outside world is
occurring today. There is no written language of the Ogiek;
instead it is a spoken language that is passed from parent to
child (Kirui & Mbugua, 2004). As some of the Ogiek have become
assimilated into the population bordering the Mau, they have
become cattle and peasant farmers. They have adopted the languages
of their neighbors and are marrying outside of their tribes (Kirui&
Mbugua, 2004). Language and children is crucial to the Ogiek.
The spoken language is the only way knowledge and
information is passed along in their culture from old to young.
The vanishing use of their language in the younger generation
threatens the Ogiek heritage. Children are ones
future. The procreation of children is a means of ensuring the
continuance of ones lineage. As young men and women marry and
intermingle outside of their tribe knowledge, language, and the
Ogiek way of life is becoming a thing of the past. Centuries of
data, rituals, and spirituality that were once passed down through
stories, fables, and discussions are slowly being lost in the
transition with each generation. Due to government closure of all
schools in the East Mau in 1989 (Sang, 2002) the Ogiek suffer from
an eighty percent illiteracy rate, which is the highest in Kenya (Astill,
2002). Illiteracy among the Ogiek hinders the Ogiek to learn about
their heritage through the written word.
As more young men and women become assimilated into the outside
world, they also adopt the modern way of life. Herbs that were
once used for medicinal purposes and for the treatment of ailments
are now being deserted for modern medicine (Kirui & Mbugua,
2004). While some have become cattle and
peasant farmers, others have taken employment in businesses or
government sectors such as the forest department, planting
non-indigenous conifer trees. Sang (2002), in
his paper The Land Question, addresses the ignorance of the
forest department about the indigenous plants and trees in the Mau
which led to the planting of conifer trees. He notes that the
conifer does not provide viable substances or provide provisions
that can be used by the Ogiek or the wildlife in the capacity of
food or honey production. Therefore, it can be assumed that the
conifer uselessness further upsets the ecosystem and biodiversity
of the Mau Forest. In essence, these employed Ogiek are part of
the system that is eradicating the culture and heritage of their
own people.
The assimilation of the Ogiek is a threat to their language,
culture, and heritage. Assimilation is erasing
centuries of knowledge and an enriching way of life.
Lessons That Could Be Learned
Through centuries of living in a symbiotic and peaceful
relationship with nature, the Ogiek have developed a deep
understanding of their environment. Today’s
environmentalists and conservationists could learn a great deal
from the Ogiek people. Beinhart (2002), in African History and
Environmental History, states “local knowledge of the
environment, and the means of living in it, have become an
increasingly rich area of research as well as a powerful
ideological statement about the right to manage resources.”
Mankind’s past is his gateway to his future. Centuries of
environmental and conservational practices between man and
wildlife could be documented for forest management. The medicinal
use of plants and herbs for treatment of ailments could become an
aid to modern medicine. The sacred rites and spiritualism of the
Mau Forest could provide historical information for future
generations. With only 500 families practicing their ancestral
life style as hunters and gathers (Astill, 2002) in the Mau
Forest, the survival of the Ogiek heritage is of great importance.
Conclusion
In just slightly over twenty years, a total of sixty percent of
what was once lush forestland is now scrap pieces of barren land (Mbaria,
2004). Since colonization thousands of acres of prime land were
released to the politically correct people, supporters of the
government, and outside settlers through fraudulent title deeds
(Towett, 2002). In man’s quest for fortunes,
he threatens the survival of nature and those whose way of life is
dependent on it. While the Ogiek people lived in the forest, it
remained healthy and prosperous, once settlers and developers move
in, the forest and all its inhabitants are now facing extinction.
The Ogiek are a minority group of only twenty thousand countrywide
(Sang, 2002), of which currently approximately five hundred
families live the traditional way of life in the Mau Forest. At
one time scattered in all of the forests of Kenya, they are now
dispersed in only the seven sections of the Mau Forest: South West
Mau, East Mau, Ol’donyo Purro, Transmara, Maasai Mau, Western
Mau and Southern Mau (Sang, 2002). The
Ogiek have been evicted from their land since colonization,
discriminated against and dominated by their own countrymen, and
suffer from the highest illiteracy rate in Kenya. The future of
their identity is threatened as young men and women become
assimilated into the modern world. Homeland,
heritage and culture becomes of great importance as only a handful
of Ogiek live in the traditional lifestyle in the Mau Forest. This
unique relationship with the land and its environment is necessary
for the cultural and spiritual survival of these people. The
vanishing of the Ogiek is a loss that cannot be replaced. The
vitality of the biodiversity and the ecological system of the Mau
Forest is central to the tradition, spiritual growth, and economic
livelihood of the Ogiek. Therefore, the
continued existence of the indigenous Ogiek is dependent upon the
survival of the Mau Forest, and their ability to live in it, for
without it they will cease to exist.
References
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October 18, 2004, from
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http://www.ogiek.org/news/news-post-02-03-4.htm
Beinart, W. (2000). African History and Environmental History.
African Affairs 99, 269-302. Retrieved
October 19, 2004, from St Anthony’s College, University of
Oxford http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~environ/historiography/africaeh.htm
Facts about Forest. (2003). Kenya Forest Working Group.
Retrieved October 18, 2004, from http://www.kenyaforests.org/facts_about.htm
Forest. (2004) Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved
October 18, 2004, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://search.eb.com/eb/artice?tocid=9034863
Kenya: Government Destroys Ogiek’s Forest. (2001, December). Survival
International. Retrieved
October 21, 2004, from http://www.survival-international.org/ogiek_0112.htm
Kirui, E. & Mbugua, M. (Eds.). (2004). We The Endangered
Tribe.
The Center For Endangered Languages. Kenya.
Majtenyi, C. (2001, December) Even the Forests Are Being
Privatized. New African. Retrieved
October 20, 2004, from http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-
Mbaria, J. (2004, October 4). Destruction of Mau Forest
Complex Threatens Entire Economy. The EastAfrican Standard.
Retrieved October 26, 2004, from http://www.kenyaforests.org/new/dtruction_Mau.htm
Obare, L. and Wangwe, J.B. (1998, February). Underlying Causes of
Deforestation and Forest Degradation In Kenya. World
Rainforest Movement. Retrieved October 21, 2004, from www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/Africa/Kenya.html
Ogiek Address Dutch Parliament. (2004, December). ECOTERRA
International. Retrieved December 11, 2004, from http://www.ogiek.org/news/news-post-04-12-1.htm;
http://www.ogiek.org
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Sang, J.K. (2002, October 16). The Ogiek Land Question.
Paper submitted at Indigenous Rights in the Commonwealth Project
Africa Regional Expert Meeting, Cape Town, South Africa.
Sang, J.K. (2004, July 5). Government Admits Irregularities, Stick
to Land Commission Report as Environmental Suit Kicks Off. Breaking
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http://www.ogiek.org
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To Be Repossessed as Environmental Case is Set to be Heard.
Breaking News. Retrieved October 26, 2004,
from http://www.ogiek.org/indepth/200.000-illegally.htm;
http://www.ogiek.org
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Author’s Note
There is nothing more powerful than being immersed into a society
of people of a different race. There is nothing
more profound than communication with a different society of
people who you come to respect and sympathize. There
is nothing more life changing that being proud of people that you
have never met.
As a student at Seattle Preparatory High School, my senior project
involved researching and writing a thesis paper based on a
conflict that is occurring in Africa today. This
process led to the discovery of the persecution, discrimination,
and eviction of the Ogiek from the Mau Forest of Kenya.
In seeking resources it was discouraging to find limited
information. An article a listed the names of
six people in Kenya with matching email. This
was the beginning of a cultural exchange between people and myself
whom I have never met. I have come to understand I am responsible
for the good of the world. My paper is my opportunity to give
something back to the larger community. I read
a quote by Father Fernando Cardenal who states, “You learn to
read so can identify the reality in which you live, so that you
can become a protagonist of history rather than a spectator.”
My thesis has become more than a senior project.
It is about making a difference, spreading awareness and
opening the minds of others. The Ogiek crisis
is an international and a moral issue concerning the rights of
individuals to their heritage, identity, and a place they call
home.
I would like to thank the Ogiek Welfare Council and ECOTERRA
International for their assistance and support in provided
information on the Ogiek, especially Ms. Tari Kulissa, Mr. J.K.
Sang and Mr. Cheruiyot Kiplangat. Lastly, I would like to
recognize Mr. Chris Kiehn and Ms. Carey Swensen for their guidance,
and Ms. Mary Roy, my African Studies teacher.
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